Overview
The ocean is an essential part of the global environment. It influencesclimate and weatheraround the world and is home to millions of different forms of life.1Thriving marine ecosystems provide Americans with food, medicines, jobs, and recreation. The ocean also connects people to nature and is critical to some Native cultures.
Did You Know?
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Coral bleaching.Coral reefs are home to many sea creatures. When water is too warm or too cold, coral becomes damaged in a process calledbleaching. If bleaching goes on for too long, it can kill the coral.39
Increasing emissions ofgreenhouse gasesinto the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels are causing changes in the ocean (see box). These changes can alter which species of marine life thrive best in certain areas. For example, many fish have shifted their typical range as water temperatures rise.2However, other species are expected to decline in number or leave areas that are no longer favorable for them.3These shifts can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and on fishing communities.4
Many climate change impacts will only be avoided by reducing carbon dioxide emissions.5Climate-driven changes in the ocean are motivating people to find solutions to the new challenges. For example, new forecast tools are helping predict changes in ocean conditions that can help the fishing industry adapt. Many organizations are working together toprotectcoral reefs, which face hazards such as bleaching, infectious diseases, smothering from sediment, collapses in fish stocks, and other issues. Such strategies can help preserve and protect marine resources. Even with these efforts, however, it will take decades or longer for the ocean to recover.
Explore the sections on this page to learn more about climate impacts on the ocean and marine resources:
Top Climate Impacts on the Ocean and Marine Resources
Climate change affects the ocean in many ways. Three key impacts are described in this section.
1. Changes in Ocean Ecosystems
Commercial fishing is a major industry in Alaska. Some fish populations will shift north to Alaska because of rising water temperatures while other communities will suffer declines.
9Climate changes to the physical and chemical makeup of the ocean have significant impacts on marine ecosystems. For example, water temperature influences which species can live in an area.Acidificationaffects many animals’ ability to make shells or skeletons, while low oxygen levels can contribute tohypoxia, ordead zones. Warm temperatures can exacerbate the effects of both acidification and hypoxia.6
Impacts on one species can ripple across an entire ecosystem. For example, plankton—tiny organisms at the bottoms of many marinefood chains—are sensitive to water temperatures and oxygen concentrations. They can die off if the water gets too warm. Animals farther up the food chain, like whales, can suffer food shortages when this happens.
Climate changes to the marine environment will come in many forms. For instance, the diversity of some temperate ecosystems is expected to increase.7But overall, climate change is projected to disrupt marine ecosystems in ways that reduce the services they provide and their diversity of life.8
2. More Common and Severe Extreme Marine Events
Rising water temperatures, acidification, and low oxygen levels can combine with naturalocean cyclesto create extreme marine events. Marine heat waves, dead zones, andcoral bleachingare just a few examples of these events, which are projected to become more common and severe.10Extreme events can harm marine ecosystems and communities connected to these systems. For example, a large heat wave off the West Coast in 2014 shut down crab fisheries and starved baby sea lions.11
3. Impacts on Marine Fisheries
About half of all commercial and recreational fish and shellfish species in the Northeast are very vulnerable to climate change.
19Commercial and recreational marinefisheriesin some regions are at high risk from climate-driven changes in the size and distribution of fish populations.12Some fish species have already altered their geographic range in response to climate change. For example, pollock and cod are moving north to colder water as local ocean temperatures rise.13
The movement of fish into new areas disrupts the ecosystems that they move into. It can also cause confusion about what fishing regulations apply.14Changes in where fish live may also mean boats have to travel further from ports, potentially increasing costs.15
Climate change is also affecting the timing of seasonal events, which can affect fisheries. For example, some species, such as striped bass, are spawning earlier in the year.16This means that catches can peak earlier than normal. Fisheries will need to adapt to such changes or risk reduced catches and lost revenues, which can also increase prices for consumers.17
Changes in the locations and number of fish species in the ocean can present new opportunities in some cases. For example, scientists predict that some areas, such as the Bering Sea, will see more kinds of fish as warming waters drive populations north.18This could lead to new fishing opportunities and economic growth in that region.
For more specific examples of climate change impacts in your region, please see theNational Climate Assessment.
The Marine Environment and the Economy
Climate change is disrupting the structure and function of U.S. marine ecosystems, affecting the benefits they provide to people.
Many U.S. industries depend on the ocean. The marine economy generated over $665 billion in sales in 2019, with tourism and recreation, including recreational fishing, making up more than one-third of that total.20The marine economy also generated $397 billion in gross domestic product (GDP), which was 1.9% of the national GDP.21
Commercial fisheries are an important contributor to the economy. In 2019, they produced 9.3 billion pounds of seafood valued at $5.5 billion.22Other businesses, such as grocery stores, tackle shops, and restaurants, also benefit from fishery-related products and services.
As of 2019, almost 2.4 million Americans had jobs related to the ocean in fields including fisheries, construction, tourism, real estate, food service, and transportation.23The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are both key trade channels for importing and exporting goods.24The United States also extracts oil, gas, sand, and gravel from the ocean.
The ocean also provides many benefits that are harder to measure in economic terms. These are calledecosystem services. Carbon storage, water filtration, and shoreline protection are just a few of the many ecosystem services that the ocean provides.
Environmental Justice and Equity
Healthy oceans provide Americans with food and employment and are important to cultural traditions. Climate change leaves communities that depend on the ocean vulnerable to hardship. Many fishing communities already experience high rates of poverty.25Unstable fish populations and market pricing can hurt fishing communities’ earnings.26This is especially true if a community depends on a single species for their livelihoods.
Ocean health is a cornerstone of manyIndigenous cultures. Native American, Pacific Islander, andAlaska Nativecommunities often practice subsistence fishing.27,28Fluctuating fish populations can lead to food insecurity for rural Alaskan villages, where many people depend on locally caught fish for a large portion of their diet.29For example, populations of Chinook and chum salmon hit record lows in 2021, leading to the closure of subsistence salmon fishing for much of the year.30The number of shellfish, another important part of subsistence diets, has also been declining due to ocean acidification.31
Climate change also affects Indigenous people culturally. Gathering and preparing food provide social, spiritual, and economic benefits for Indigenous communities.32,33Disruptions to subsistence practices have negative health outcomes such as anxiety disorders and feelings of isolation.34
What We Can Do
Aquaculture can be used to ensure stable fish harvests despite fluctuating wild populations.
We can help reduce the impact of climate change on the marine environment in many ways, including the following:
- Adapt fishery management.Fishing professionals and government officials can help people adapt to climate change bychanging policies and practicesto avoid overfishing and maintain healthy marine ecosystems.
- Diversify fisheries.Aquaculture, or seafood farming, helps build resilience against climate change.
- Reduce energy use.Everyone cantake stepsto lowercarbon emissions, which can help reduce ocean warming and acidification.
- Shop sustainably.Plan your meals withsustainably harvested seafoodto keep ocean ecosystems healthy. These are fish and shellfish that have been caught using sustainable techniques and management practices.
- Recreate responsibly.Helpprotect coral reefs. When boating, be careful not to let anchors damage coral reefs or seagrass beds. Never touch coral reefs when diving or snorkeling. Alsoavoid using sunscreenscontaining chemicals that can harm marine life.
See additional actions you can take, as well as steps that companies can take, on EPA’sWhat You Can Do About Climate Changepage.
Endnotes
1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2017).Marine life counts: The U.S. marine biodiversity observation network. National Ocean Service. NOAA Ocean Podcast: Episode 35. Retrieved 3/7/2022.
2 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 369.
3 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 358.
4 Moore, C., et al. (2021).Estimating the economic impacts of climate change on 16 major U.S. fisheries. Climate Change Economics, 12(1).
5 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 367.
6 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.
7 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 357.
8 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 360.
9 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 355.
10 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 372.
11 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.
12 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 361.
13 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 355.
14 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.
15 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.
16 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.
17 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.
18 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 362.
19 NOAA. (N.D.).Northeast fish and shellfish climate vulnerability assessment. NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.
20 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021).Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 3/7/2022.
21 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021).Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 3/7/2022.
22 NOAA Fisheries. (2019).Fisheries of the United States. Retrieved 5/11/2022.
23 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2021).Marine economy satellite account, 2014–2019. Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved 2/7/2022.
24 U.S. Department of Commerce. (N.D.).Maritime services. International Trade Administration. Retrieved 3/18/2022.
25 NOAA. (2021).Social indicators for coastal communities. NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.
26 NOAA. (2021).Social indicators for coastal communities. NOAA Fisheries. Retrieved 3/18/2022.
27 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2016).Guidance for conducting fish consumption surveys. Retrieved 3/7/2022.
28 EPA. (2016).Technical guidance for assessing environmental justice in regulatory analysis. Retrieved 3/7/2022.
29 Markon, C., et al. (2018).Ch. 26: Alaska. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.
30 Alaska Department of Fish and Game. (2021).2021 Yukon River summer season summary. Retrieved 3/18/2022.
31 Markon, C., et al. (2018).Ch. 26: Alaska. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.
32 Jantarasami, L.C., et al. (2018).Ch. 15: Tribes and indigenous peoples. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 582.
33 Markon, C., et al. (2018).Ch. 26: Alaska. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 1205.
34 Jantarasami, L.C., et al. (2018).Ch. 15: Tribes and indigenous peoples. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 582.
35 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 366.
36 Pershing, A.J., et al. (2018).Ch. 9: Oceans and marine resources. In:Impacts, risks, and adaptation in the United States: Fourth national climate assessment, volume II. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, p. 363.
